The linkages between biodiversity, climate and social issues can have significant implications for the effectiveness of policies designed to address them, with outcomes that can be co-detrimental, display strong or weak trade-offs, or even deliver co-benefits (see Section 6).

Despite growing awareness of the linkages between biodiversity loss and climate change, we still lack a full understanding of how social issues, particularly inter- and intra-generational equity, are affected by interventions to mitigate climate change or to conserve biodiversity (Halpern and Fujita, 2013; Zafra-Calvo et al., 2019).

To better understand and quantify interaction of all the processes involved, future monitoring and research is needed (Macias-Fauria et al., 2020)

The Amazon is responsible for delivering all sorts of ecosystem services, despite essential gaps in the scientific literature (Pires et al., 2018)

Syntheses of indigenous and local knowledge about the status and trends in nature

Syntheses of how human impacts affect organismal traits and global patterns and trends in genetic composition

Scenarios about nonmaterial benefits to people compared to material benefits and regulating benefits

Quantitative data showing how nature, its contributions to people, and good quality of life interact and change in time along different pathways

Need for indicators for some Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets (e.g., Aichi Biodiversity Target 15 on ecosystem resilience and contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks and Target 18 on integration of traditional knowledge and effective participation of indigenous and local communities.)

More comprehensive understanding of how human-caused changes to any Essential Biodiversity Variable class (e.g., ecosystem structure) have impacts on others (e.g., community composition) and on nature’s contributions to people