Glossary definitions

A measure of the amount of biologically productive land and water required to support the demands of a population or productive activity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation or humanity as a whole.

Ecological infrastructure refers to the natural or semi-natural structural elements of ecosystems and landscapes that are important in delivering ecosystem services. It is similar to ‘green infrastructure', a term sometimes applied in a more urban context. The ecological infrastructure needed to support pollinators and improve pollination services includes patches of semi-natural habitats, including hedgerows, grassland and forest, distributed throughout productive agricultural landscapes, providing nesting and floral resources. Larger areas of natural habitat are also ecological infrastructure, although these do not directly support agricultural pollination in areas more than a few kilometers away from pollinator- dependent crops.

Ecological infrastructure refers to the natural or semi-natural structural elements of ecosystems and landscapes that are important in delivering ecosystem services. It is similar to ‘green infrastructure', or ‘green and blue infrastructure' a term sometimes applied in a more urban context. The ecological infrastructure needed to support pollinators and improve pollination services includes patches of semi-natural habitats, including hedgerows, grassland and forest, distributed throughout productive agricultural landscapes, providing nesting and floral resources. Larger areas of natural habitat are also ecological infrastructure, although these do not directly support agricultural pollination in areas more than a few kilometers away from pollinator-dependent crops.

Ecological infrastructure refers to the natural or semi-natural structural elements of ecosystems and landscapes that are important in delivering ecosystem services. It is similar to 'green infrastructure', a term sometimes applied in a more urban context. The ecological infrastructure needed to support pollinators and improve pollination services includes patches of semi-natural habitats, including hedgerows, grassland and forest, distributed throughout productive agricultural landscapes, providing nesting and floral resources. Larger areas of natural habitat are also ecological infrastructure, although these do not directly support agricultural pollination in areas more than a few kilometers away from pollinator-dependent crops.

The natural or semi-natural structural elements of ecosystems and landscapes that are important in delivering ecosystem services. It is similar to green infrastructure, a term sometimes applied in a more urban context. The ecological infrastructure needed to support pollinators and improve pollination services includes patches of semi-natural habitats, including hedgerows, grassland and forest, distributed throughout productive agricultural landscapes, providing nesting and floral resources. Larger areas of natural habitat are also ecological infrastructure, although these do not directly support agricultural pollination in areas more than a few kilometres away from pollinator- dependent crops.

The ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms.

Non-human entities as subjects of justice (rights-holders). Rights of nature vs. rights to nature.

The take-over of local natural resources by private and/or state interests, and the gradual or immediate disorganization of the ecosystem via withdrawals and additions.

The physical and biological actions or events that link organisms and their environment.

As explained by Thompson et al. (2011): From ecology based on interactions to solidarity based on links between individuals united around a common goal and conscious of their common interests and their moral obligation and responsibility to help others, we define ecological solidarity as the reciprocal interdependence of living organisms amongst each other and with spatial and temporal variation in their physical environment.

Any system that maintains efficient production by optimal management of naturally occurring ecological functions and biodiversity. To be put in place, understandings are required of the relations between land use at different scales and the community composition of ecosystem service-providing organisms above- and below-ground, and the flow, stability, contribution to yield, and management costs of the multiple services delivered by these organisms.

The study of interrelations of the diversity (q.v.) of life, the abundance (q.v.) of life forms, and the interplay of their activities within and between life forms and the physical environment.

Economic and financial instruments can be used to change people's behavior towards desired policy objectives. Instruments typically encompass a wide range of designs and implementation approaches. They include traditional fiscal instruments, including for example subsidies, taxes, charges and fiscal transfers. Additionally, instruments such as tradable pollution permits or tradable land development rights rely on the creation of new markets. Further instruments represent conditional and voluntary incentive schemes such as payments for ecosystem services. All these can in principle be used to correct for policy or/and market failures and reinstate full-cost pricing. They aim at reflecting social costs or benefits of the conservation and use of biodiversity and ecosystem services of a public good nature (getting the price right). Financial instruments, in contrast, are often extra-budgetary and can be financed from domestic sources or foreign aid, external borrowing, debt for nature swaps, etc. It should be noted that economic instruments do not necessarily imply that commodification of environmental functions is promoted. Generally, they are meant to change behavior of individuals (e.g. consumers and producers) and public actors (e.g. local and regional governments).

Economic and financial instruments can be used to change people's behavior towards desired policy objectives. Instruments typically encompass a wide range of designs and implementation approaches. They include traditional fiscal instruments, including for example subsidies, taxes, charges and fiscal transfers. Additionally, instruments such as tradable pollution permits or tradable land development rights rely on the creation of new markets. Further instruments represent conditional and voluntary incentive schemes such as payments for ecosystem services. All these can in principle be used to correct for policy or/and market failures and reinstate full-cost pricing. They aim at reflecting social costs or benefits of the conservation and use of biodiversity and ecosystem services of a public good nature (getting the price right). Financial instruments, in contrast, are often extra-budgetary and can be financed from domestic sources or foreign aid, external borrowing, debt for nature swaps, etc. Economic instruments do not necessarily imply that commodification of environmental functions is promoted. Generally, they are meant to change behavior of individuals (e.g. consumers and producers) and public actors (e.g. local and regional governments).

Economic and financial instruments can be used to change people's behaviour towards desired policy objectives. Instruments typically encompass a wide range of designs and implementation approaches. They include traditional fiscal instruments, including for example subsidies, taxes, charges and fiscal transfers. Additionally, instruments such as tradable pollution permits or tradable land development rights rely on the creation of new markets. Further instruments represent conditional and voluntary incentive schemes such as payments for ecosystem services. All these can in principle be used to correct for policy or/and market failures and reinstate full-cost pricing. They aim at reflecting social costs or benefits of the conservation and use of biodiversity and ecosystem services of a public good nature (getting the price right). Financial instruments, in contrast, are often extra-budgetary and can be financed from domestic sources or foreign aid, external borrowing, debt for nature swaps and so on. It should be noted that economic instruments do not necessarily imply that commodification of environmental functions is promoted. Generally, they are meant to change behaviour of individuals (e.g. consumers and producers) and public actors (e.g. local and regional governments).

See values.

A measure of the benefit provided by a good or service to an economic agent (e.g. buyer or seller). It is not necessarily the same as market value. It is generally measured by units of currency, and can be interpreted to mean the maximum amount of money a specific actor is willing and able to accept or pay for the good or service.

Economists group values in terms of their use or non-use. Use values can be both direct and indirect, and can relate to current or future (option) uses.

Degree to which people, property, resources, systems, and cultural, economic, environmental, and social activity are susceptible to harm, degradation, or destruction on being exposed to an economic or environmental hostile agent or factor.

A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that: (a). Share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics; (b). Share similar environmental conditions, and; (c). Interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence. In contrast to biomes, an ecoregion is generally geographically specific, at a much finer scale. For example, the East African Montane Forest ecoregion of Kenya (WWF ecoregion classification) is a geographically specific and coherent example of the globally occurring tropical and subtropical forest biome.

A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that: Share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics; Share similar environmental conditions, and; Interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence (source: WWF). In contrast to biomes, an ecoregion is generally geographically specific, is at a much finer scale, and contains ecologically interacting biota. For example, the “East African Montane Forest” eco- region of Kenya (WWF eco-region classification) is a geographically specific and coherent example of the globally occurring “tropical and subtropical forest” biome.

The process of constructing formal accounts for ecosystems.

See 'Ecosystem-based approach'.

A long-term reduction in an ecosystem’s structure, functionality, or capacity to provide benefits to people.

A long-term reduction in an ecosystem's structure, functionality, or capacity to provide benefits to people.

A persistent (long-time) reduction in the capacity to provide ecosystem services.

The integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines physical and biological structures and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact with each other.

Organism that changes the abiotic environment by physically altering structure, which often have effects on other biota and their interactions, and on ecosystem processes.

The flow of energy and materials through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. It includes many processes such as biomass production, trophic transfer through plants and animals, nutrient cycling, water dynamics and heat transfer.

The flow of energy and materials through the arrangement of biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. It includes many processes such as biomass production, trophic transfer through plants and animals, nutrient cycling, water dynamics and heat transfer. The concept is used here in the broad sense and it can thus be taken as being synonymous with ecosystem properties or ecosystem structure and function.

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, they are included in the general definition of ecosystem services. According to other approaches, they are objects from ecosystems that people value through experience, use or consumption. The use of this term in the context of this document goes well beyond a narrow definition of goods simply as physical items that are bought and sold in markets, and includes objects that have no market price.

Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem, by analogy with human health. Note that there is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem. Rather, the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary, depending upon which metrics are employed in judging it, and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment.

A state or condition of an ecosystem that expresses attributes of biodiversity within normal ranges, relative to its ecological stage of development. Ecosystem health depends inter alia on ecosystem resilience and resistance.

A state or condition of an ecosystem that expresses attributes of biodiversity within normal ranges, relative to its ecological stage of development. Ecosystem health depends inter alia on ecosystem resilience and resistance. Note that there is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem. Rather, the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary, depending upon which metrics are employed in judging it, and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment.

Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem,by analogy with human health. Note that there is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem. Rather, the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary, depending upon which metrics are employed in judging it, and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment.

The ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms. It is measured as the degree to which a diverse community of native organisms is maintained, and is used as a proxy for ecological resilience, intended as the capacity of an ecosystem to adapt in the face of stressors, while maintaining the functions of interest.

An approach to maintaining or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework, and defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries.

An approach to maintaining or restoring the composition, structure, function and delivery of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework, and defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries.

Policies and practices that are necessarily focused on recovery of a self-sustaining living system characteristic of past or least- disturbed landscapes.

The degree to which an ecosystem is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate related stimuli, including mean (average) climate characteristics, climate variability and the frequency and magnitude of extremes.

A service that is provided by an ecosystem as an intrinsic property of its functionality (e.g. pollination, nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, fruit and seed dispersal). The benefits (and occasionally disbenefits) that people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; and cultural services such as recreation and sense of place. In the original definition of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment the concept of ecosystem goods and services is synonymous with ecosystem services.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural. This classification, however, is superseded in IPBES assessments by the system used under “Nature’s contributions to people”. This is because IPBES recognizes that many services fit into more than one of the four categories. For example, food is both a provisioning service and also, emphatically, a cultural service, in many cultures.

The benefits (and occasionally disbenefits or losses) that people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; and cultural services such as recreation, ethical and spiritual, educational and sense of place. In the original definition of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment the concept of ecosystem goods and services is synonymous with ecosystem services. Other approaches distinguish final ecosystem services that directly deliver welfare gains and/or losses to people through goods from this general term that includes the whole pathway from ecological processes through to final ecosystem services, goods and anthropocentric values to people.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural. This classification, however, is superseded in IPBES assessments by the system used under nature's contributions to people. This is because IPBES recognises that many services fit into more than one of the four categories. For example, food is both a provisioning service and also, emphatically, a cultural service, in many cultures.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. The concept ‘‘ecosystem goods and services'’ is synonymous with ecosystem services.

The benefits people obtain from nature (MEA, 2003; Diaz et al., 2005). This is the original IPBES definition, inherited from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the literature which preceded it, and is the one most widely used in the research and policy community and the technical literature. IPCC defines ecosystem services as “ecological processes or functions which have value to individuals or society”, which is consistent with, and slightly more precise than, the IPBES definition, but is less widely used in the community. Within IPBES, the term “ecosystem services” and its subtypes have since 2018 been superseded by the terminology associated with the conceptual framework referred to as “nature’s contributions to people” (see Natures Contributions to People for explanation of the logic of the change). This includes most - but not all -of the specific components previously under ecosystem services. What were formerly known as supporting services are excluded, largely to avoid double-accounting.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural. This classification, however, is superseded in IPBES assessments by the system used under “nature’s contributions to people”. This is because IPBES recognises that many services fit into more than one of the four categories. For example, food is both a provisioning service and also, emphatically, a cultural service, in many cultures.

The individuals and communities of plants and animals of which an ecosystem is composed, their age and spatial distribution, and the non- living natural resources present.

A community of living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and various microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (such as energy, air, water and mineral soil), all interacting as a system.